I: Introduction
Tibet is non-homogeneous. Even in the Tibetan Autonomous Region there are non-Tibetan tribes as Menba, Loba, Drung, Xiaerba etc. Historically, Tibetan started from the southern part of present Tibet Autonomous Region, and expanded to the northern Tibet, Qinghai, Sichuan and Gansu, conquering and assimilated some native people and native tribes of those land, including at least 500,000 Han people. The original tribal system of southern Tibet evaporated during the rule of Tubo dynasty. Since the collapse of Tubo dynasty in the 9th century, many assimilated people reverted to the tribal systems for survival. There were some local kingdoms established by these tribes. For instance, Xixia was established 1,000 years ago at the Gansu. According to one modern analysis, the languages of Xixia and Tibetan are only 25 % coincidental for the key words. After culture exchanges of the last 1,100 years, the tribal people are considered Tibetan nowaday.
The Tibetan tribal people occupy a vast high attitude and cold land. In general the land is not suitable for agriculture. The Tibetan tribal people make a living by raising animals and farming many small plots in the valleys. The land is sparsely populated. For the last 800 years, the Tibetan tribal people outside the Tibet Autonomous Region have been ruled loosely by the central governments of China. In Qing dynasty, the northern Tibet tribes was put under the direct rule of the Qing Governor of Tibet (Tzu Zang Da Chen or Amban). The land, which is 2/3 of the land of Tibet Autonomous Region, was conquered by the Tibet Government in 1914-1916 after the collapse of Qing dynasty in 1911.
II: Distribution
(1) Tibet Autonomous Region
The tribal area consists of the western Tibet (Ali), the northern Tibet (Nagqu and Amdo) and the eastern Tibet (Chamdo). the northern Tibet is the huge area bounded by Nianqing Tanggula Mts, Gandise Mts, Tanggula Mts and Kunlun Mts. The western, northern and eastern Tibet correspond to the ancient Shangshung Kingdom.
There are three major tribes in this area: Changri (including six lesser tribes), Nachan (including six lesser tribes) and Hor (Mongolia) (thirty nine lesser tribes).
In the 13th century, Yuan dynasty stationed Mongolian troops in the northern Tibet to control Tibet. Mongols dominated this area. In the 18th century, Kushi Khan strengthened Mongolian control.
The Hor thirty nine tribes are supposely Mongolian tribes assimilated by Tibetan. The Hor tribes had been there for at least 500 years and had been ruled by the Mongolian `Hor Kings'. The Tibetan tribal people of Chamdo (in the eatern Tibet) are `kangba' , the tribal people of the northern and western Tibet are `Poiba'.
(2) Qinghai
The Tibetans here are 'Ando'. The major tribes are Yushu twenty five tribes, Goulou three tribes, Qinghai Lake eight tribes, and Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Zhou (some thirty Tibetan tribes and five Mongolian tribes).
(3) Sichuan
The Tibetans in the western Sichuan are `Kangba'. The Tibetans in the north-western Sichuan are 'Ando'. The major tribes are Grassland (twenty four tribes), Bouzuo seven houses (i.e. seven tribes), and four big Tushis (i.e., `native mayors') . They cover the western and north-western parts of Sichuan Province.
(4) Gansu
The Tibetans here are 'Ando'. There are many tribes which are the descendents of the Karjia six tribes consisting of Tibetan garrisons of the Tubo dynasty of the eighth century. Their land is at the southwest corner of Gansu Province.
III: Religion
The Tibetan Buddhism and Bonism are both influential in the western Tibet, the northern Tibet, the eastern Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan Tibetan areas. There are Bonism monasteries, Bonism Tulkus/Living Buddhas in these areas. For instance, the Hor Kings were believers and protectors of Bonism.
Labrang in Gansu and Ku-bum (Taer in Mongolian) in Qinghai are two important Ge-lug pa monasteries. Labrang Monastery owns five tribes, Ku-bum Monastery owns six tribes.
IV: Political System
There are frequent subdivisions and recombinations of tribes. The earlist history one can trace back is about four or five hundred years old. Traditionally, the governments of Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties maintained the native tribal systems. They were interested in collecting taxes, maintaining posts and stationed troops in these areas. Otherwise, the tribes were left alone. According to the sizes of tribes, the headmen were bestowed the titles of `ten thousand families' (Yuan dynasty only), `thousand families', `hundred families' and `hundred men'. The titles are inheritable.
However, these titles only indicate the sizes of the tribes hundreds years ago. There are `thousand families tribes' with only a couple hundred people, and others with twenty thousand people. The strata of tribes change constantly. The titles are not good indicators to be studied.
In the northern Tibet, there is a theocratic rule of the Tibetan Buddism after the collapse of Qing dynasty in 1911. Outside Tibet, the Tibetan, Mongolian, Han and Manchurian terms for the tribal positions have been used in a chaotic way, which reflects the historical influences of various periods. There are many different organizations in the Tibetan tribes: some may be military, apparently passed down from the Tubo dynasty, some headmen may have the `thousand families', the `hundred families' and the `hundred men' titles inherited from Yuan dynasty, some may be called `flags' and may have the `Bou-Jia' system of Qing dynasty. In many occasions, several systems co-exist. In many places, a `thousand families' title-holder is directly subordinate to the provincial government, while in Sichuan, such a person may be subordinate to `Tushi'. In Hor thirty nine tribes, the person is subordinate to the `Hor King'.
V: Justice System
Sometimes, the cases will be in front of a group (usually two members) of mediators with lawyers representing each party. If the case is difficult, then it may be decided by one of the following five methods:
(1) Oath: Each side put down a sizable amount of property. The relatives and friends of each party take turns to swear to deities. If some one refuses to swear, then that side loses the case.
(2) Boiled oil pot: Two stones, one white, one black, are put in a boiled oil pot. Two parties use bare hands to pick up the stones. The one picking up the white stone wins the case.
(3) Hot sickle: Each party will hold a red hot sickle and walk seven steps. After that, the hand will be covered in a white cloth for four days. The party who shows no sign of injury after four days is telling the truth.
(4) Pick up stone: The party who picks up a white stone from muddy water wins the case.
(5) Toss dice: The party who wins a dice game wins the case.
VI: Cradle of Human Species?
In the last 2 million years, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has risen some 3,000 metres. While some apes continues to live comfortably off the vegetation in the warm and humid forested areas, survival on this plateau was being imperiled. Forests were depleting, and the temperature falling, while the landmass itself continued rising.
In face of such adverse changes, man's ancestor was the first to come down from the trees: there were no more trees to climb and no more fruit to gather. He turned to fishing and hunting for survival.
The above is a theory or conjecture. Some archeologists are digging up there to find more evidences.